An index of education based on the percentages of people with bachelor’s degrees. An index of income based on median reported income values within the ZIP codes and. These components were based on 2014 data and included: To stratify Milwaukee’s ZIP codes into five groups by SES, we used an SES index composed of two equally-weighted components (Mustard & Frohlich, 1995). Thirty-five ZIP (postal) codes are wholly contained within Milwaukee County, representing one-eighth of Wisconsin’s 5.8 million citizens (U.S. SES is determined based on income and education levels following a previous approach used by Vila and colleagues (Vila et al., 2007). The Milwaukee Health Report described the city’s health determinants and outcomes by socioeconomic status (SES). The Milwaukee Health Report provided information regarding health disparities among the SES groups within the city, and offered comparisons of health outcomes and health determinants between the City of Milwaukee, the State of Wisconsin and the United States.ĭefining Socioeconomic Status. Thus, the distribution of health outcomes and health disparities result from differences in the distribution of the determinants in the population. In that framework, health outcomes are considered the result of a set of health factors (e.g., healthcare access and quality, health behaviors, physical environment, and socioeconomic determinants such as income and education). The Milwaukee Health Report was based upon the population health framework and the foundational work of the University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute's Wisconsin County Health Rankings. In 2009 the Center for Urban Population Health and partner organizations launched the first Milwaukee Health Report. Because Milwaukee is one of the most racially segregated large metropolitan areas for Blacks and Whites in the U.S., the negative health effects associated with racial segregation, concentrated poverty, and neighborhood conditions is an important public health concern (Logan & Stults, 2011). Furthermore, race and ethnicity are closely linked with socioeconomic status in the U.S. Individual SES factors such and education and income are highly predictive of health outcomes, as well as the neighborhood effects associated with concentrated poverty (Do, 2009). 
The relationship between socioeconomic factors and health outcomes is one of the most robust and well documented findings in social science and medicine (Braveman et al., 2011) and has been documented in numerous communities across the nation, including Milwaukee by members of our current research team (Vila, Swain, Baumgardner, Halsmer, Remington, & Cisler, 2007).
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